Insurgency Overview
The United Wa State Army (UWSA) is an ethnic armed organization in Myanmar. Established in 1989, the UWSA is the military wing of the United Wa State Party (UWSP). The UWSP governs the autonomous Wa State within Myanmar. In a country with numerous decades-long insurgencies, the UWSA is the largest of Myanmar’s various ethnic militias. Over 30,000 strong, it is well-armed and highly organized. The UWSA’s mandate is to defend and expand Wa state, securing its sovereignty and economy (1).
The UWSA is also a drug trafficking organization, having produced and trafficked large quantities of opioids and methamphetamines since its inception. The UWSA and its leaders have been sanctioned and designated as major drug traffickers by American law enforcement organizations. Wa State is nestled in a mountainous region along the Myanmar-China border. Although it has not seceded from Myanmar, it has been granted complete independence from the central government. In the ongoing Myanmar Civil War, the UWSA has stayed neutral and Wa State is one of the few stable areas of the country (2).
UWSA forces entering Hopeng in January 2024, a contested town in southern Shan State.
History & Foundations
For millennia, the Wa people have inhabited the mountainous area along what is today the border region between Myanmar, China, and Thailand. During British colonial rule over Myanmar, then known as Burma, the Wa states were left unadministered, as they were extremely rural and inaccessible. Well into the twentieth century, the Wa lived as independent tribes spread across the mountainous region. When British emissaries approached them with promises of modern technology and governance, the Wa rejected these offers, preferring to stay independent (1).
Burma achieved its independence in 1948. The next year, nationalist Kuomintang forces fled across the Chinese border into Burma following the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War. Equipped and funded by the CIA, the Kuomintang established its presence in the region and began to produce opium, a practice that dates back centuries in Myanmar, and created the foundations for the drug hotbed now known as the Golden Triangle (1). The Kuomintang forced local farmers to produce large quantities of opium, increasing the supply of the drug. When they approached the Wa, the nationalists found they would not be easily swayed. The Kuomintang traded their CIA-supplied arms to Wa clan leaders in exchange for opium, allowing the Wa to strengthen their power and expand their territory. This allowed these leaders to become warlords, though they remained small and disorganized. One of these minor warlords was the future leader of the United Wa State Army, Bao Youxiang (2).
Following Burma’s independence, the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) began an insurgency against the newly independent democratic government and the Kuomintang. The CPB established itself in Wa territory in the late 1960s, successfully recruiting many members from the existing Wa militias, including Bao Youxiang. It maintained control over the region until a mutiny led by the Wa resulted in the party’s collapse in 1989. The CPB’s leaders were exiled to China. In its wake, Youxiang and other leaders of the mutiny established Wa State and the UWSA in an effort to maintain their independence from outside forces. China supported the Wa in their efforts to rid their territory of the orthodox Maoist CPB as the Chinese Communist Party progressed ideologically (1).
Following the mutiny, the UWSA made peace with Burma’s ruling military junta, which had seized power in 1988 and renamed the country Myanmar in 1989. This peace was maintained under the condition that the Wa were granted complete autonomy. The UWSA fought alongside government forces against the Mong Tai Army (MTA), a competing narco-militia led by the notorious drug lord Khun Sa. Following the MTA’s defeat in 1996, the UWSA took control of an area directly south of the Wa’s ancestral lands along the Thai border, allowing the UWSA’s drug production and trafficking operations to explode (3).
Wei Xuegang, a major player in the UWSA and one of the group’s founders, was assigned to manage Southern Wa State in 1996. Xuegang is the son of a Kuomintang member who fled to Burma following its defeat and became active in the opium trade (2). As a young man, he joined the MTA and developed a close relationship with Khun Sa. He left the MTA for the UWSA in 1989. After the fall of Khun Sa, Xuegang became Southeast Asia’s top drug kingpin, managing key logistics for the UWSA’s drug trafficking operation. A modest, unassuming man, Xuegang drew little attention to himself, not giving law enforcement agencies much to work with. He spoke Chinese, helping the Wa establish worldwide trafficking networks (4).
In 1995, Bao Youxiang was appointed the leader of the UWSA and UWSP, taking over from the previous leader Zhao Nyi Lai, whose health was deteriorating. Facing increasing pressure from the US, China, and other international powers, Youxiang promised to cease opium production by 2005. He destroyed poppy fields and relocated opium farmers to more fertile regions where they could grow other crops. However, as the UWSA showed to the world that they were moving away from drug trafficking, in reality it was just adapting to a changing market. It began to switch its focus to Yaa Baa, a methamphetamine pill that was exploding in popularity across Southeast Asia. Meaning “madness drug,” Yaa Baa is a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine (1).
Wei Xuegang was indicted in the US for drug trafficking in 2005 (1). By this point, he had already transitioned to becoming a mostly legitimate businessman. In 1998, he started the Hong Pang Group, now known as the Thawda Win Company, a conglomerate of businesses in construction, mining, agriculture, and other sectors. He remains a fugitive and his current whereabouts are unknown (4).
In 2009, the UWSA fought against government forces during the Kokang incident. The government moved into the Kokang region north of Wa State to dismantle the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army’s (MNDAA) drug production facilities, leading to a standoff that resulted in skirmishes between ethnic militias and government forces. Although the MNDAA was defeated, the UWSA withdrew. Wa State remained unaffected; however the incident soured relations between the Wa and the government (6).
Myanmar began another attempt at transitioning to democracy in 2011. After a decade of a tedious civilian government, the various insurgencies in Myanmar escalated from a low-intensity conflict to a full-blown civil war in 2021. The military deposed the country’s democratically elected government in a coup d’etat and the country’s ethnic armed organizations took sides (5). The UWSA has largely stayed out of the war while supplying various sides and becoming a diplomatic middleman. It is a member of the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee, a group of armed organizations seeking to negotiate with the ruling military junta (1).
After years of diplomatic attempts from the Thai government to deal with the UWSA’s military presence and drug trafficking along the Myanmar-Thailand border, tensions rose in November 2024 when Thai forces were deployed to the area. This occurred in response to alleged encroachments by UWSA bases into Thailand. As of January 2025, Wa and Thai officials are currently in talks to resolve the issue (7).
A UWSA military propaganda video.
Objectives & Ideology
The United Wa State Army has been extremely pragmatic in preserving Wa sovereignty and self-determination. The group seeks to preserve Wa culture while maintaining its control over Wa State. Its ideology and activities revolve around this. Its authoritarian, socialist government mirrors that of its closest ally, China, to maintain their positive relations, which the Wa rely on to ensure the continued existence of Wa State. However, their focus is ultimately on Wa nationalism, not a particular strain of socialism. The UWSA does not seek to secede from Myanmar, as it is currently able to maintain its independence without jeopardizing its stability (1).
The UWSA’s purpose is to ensure Wa State’s independence and safeguard its drug trafficking operation, which Wa State has relied on to fund the UWSA and support its economic independence from the rest of Myanmar. There is a strong sense of militarism in Wa culture stemming from the tribal period. Today, this is exemplified by the UWSA’s elaborate military parades and compulsory military service (2).
Political & Military Capabilities
Wa State is a de facto sovereign nation. It has its own public works, government, economy, and military, the latter being the United Wa State Army. Wa State is a one-party socialist state with a population of roughly one million ruled by the United Wa State Party. It is very difficult for outsiders to enter and the government is typically hostile toward foreign media and NGOs. Wa State has borrowed certain things from its ally China, such as its government style, language, and currency. Currently, it is the most stable region in Myanmar (2).
The UWSA is extremely well-armed and funded, as it has armed itself with the proceeds of the drug trade throughout its history. Most of its weapons are supplied from China, though the CCP denies this (3). The UWSA possesses modern, military grade-weapons in its arsenal, including small arms, artillery, missiles, armored vehicles, tanks, drones, and even helicopters. There are roughly 30,000 soldiers in the Army, with 10,000 auxiliary troops. One male from each household is required to serve in either the UWSA or the Wa State administration (2).
There are dozens of methamphetamine factories in Wa State, concentrated in the southern exclave. The UWSA used to produce drugs in its own facilities, but its drug production is now handled by ethnic Chinese criminal groups in Wa territory protected by the UWSA in exchange for a portion of their profits. Drugs have long been trafficked across the Thai border, where they are then distributed by criminal networks across Southeast Asia and worldwide. However, since the UWSA transitioned from opium to methamphetamines, it has primarily trafficked within Asia, where it dominates a $60 billion market and avoids Western attention. Today, the UWSP claims it has transitioned to legitimate industries, such as mining and agriculture. The world’s third largest tin mine is in Wa State. It also benefits from its close relationship with China as a political ally and trading partner (2).
Approach to Resistance
The UWSA has been quick to adapt to changing trends in the drug trade. Long before heroin was made largely obsolete by fentanyl and synthetic opioids, the UWSA had already transitioned to producing methamphetamines. This also allowed the UWSA to present to the world the claim that the Wa had quit the drug trade, legitimizing Wa State and deflecting attention from Western law enforcement agencies. The $60 billion methamphetamine trade in Southeast Asia is extremely profitable, with anywhere from two to six billion Yaa Baa pills being produced annually in Wa State. The UWSA has also become involved in arms trafficking to other ethnic armed organizations, as well as human trafficking and online scams (2).
Since securing its territory and sovereignty, the UWSA has sparingly engaged in conflict with other groups and serves a primarily defensive purpose (3). It is a tool for the UWSP to secure its independence and legitimacy. It also serves as muscle for the drug trade in Wa State. It has positioned itself as neutral in the ongoing Myanmar civil war, allowing it to influence diplomatic relations between the war’s various factions to the benefit of Wa State (5).
The UWSA benefits from military and economic advantages due to Wa State’s geography. It borders both China and Thailand, making it easy for arms to come in and drugs to go out. This area is difficult to access, as it is extremely isolated and mountainous, giving the UWSA a strong defensive position. This may also explain why the Wa are so fiercely independent and have retained their traditional ways for much longer than other ethnic groups in Myanmar. The land in Wa State is not ideal for growing most crops due to the poor soil and cold climate, but it is perfect for opium production. While most crops would go bad by the time they reached larger markets given Wa State’s remote location, opium keeps for much longer. These factors, as well as the impressive profit margins, are why many poor farmers opted to grow the opium poppy instead of other crops (2).
UWSA troops with various small arms, including self-produced and Chinese-sourced rifles.
Relations & Alliances
The UWSA has been backed by China since 1989, which has been crucial to arming the UWSA and ensuring Wa State’s continued existence. In exchange, China is able to control drug trafficking and insurgency on its border, fostering stability and preventing smaller factions from frequently erupting into violence. The UWSA also does not traffic drugs produced in Wa State to China, explaining why the methamphetamine epidemic that has hit many countries in Southeast Asia has not reached China. The Wa and China have enjoyed a stable relationship, and Wa leaders have been seen many times with high-ranking members of the CCP (2).
The Wa have had a tense but mutually beneficial relationship with the Myanmar government in its various forms over the years. Their agreement to not secede and to maintain peace in exchange for sovereignty has held up with few exceptions, such as the Kokang incident. Meanwhile, the UWSA has also fought alongside the Myanmar military in an operation to remove Khun Sa’s Mong Tai Army from southern Shan State. However, the UWSA has declined the government’s requests to sign the National Ceasefire Agreement and disarm, as the operation sees its arsenal as critical to its independence (3). The government has also largely overlooked the UWSA’s drug operation. This has caused antagonism from countries in Southeast Asia where its drugs have been trafficked, such as Thailand (7).
As the UWSA’s drug trafficking operation began to move massive amounts of heroin into the United States and globally, it began attracting attention from the CIA and DEA. The CIA already had an interest in the Wa due to the communist insurgency in their land from 1948 to 1989, and the organization unsuccessfully tried to recruit Wa warriors to fight against the CPB. The DEA also had informants inside the UWSA’s ranks, including high-ranking commander Saw Lu, who became an informant during the early 1990s. However, this caused tension between the CIA and the DEA, as the former believed it should be handling the UWSA given the geopolitical implications (2). The DEA has helped sanction and indict key leaders, such as Bao Youxiang and Wei Xuegang, limiting their economic activities (1). It has also collaborated with Myanmar’s central government and other countries in the region, such as Thailand and Laos, to combat drug trafficking in Southeast Asia. However, following the UWSA’s transition from opioids to methamphetamines in the early 2000s, the group has gone under the radar of American law enforcement agencies. Since the UWSA is only trafficking within Southeast Asia, it is not of particular interest to the US, compared to other drug trafficking organizations that pose a more direct threat (2).
The UWSA has aligned itself with and against Myanmar’s various other armed ethnic organizations to its own strategic benefit. However, it has mostly avoided engaging in conflict with other groups, preferring to focus on its economic activities. Currently, it leads the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee, consisting of the UWSA and six other ethnic armed organizations, four of which are in the Northern Alliance currently fighting against the ruling military junta in the civil war. Formed in 2017, before the civil war, the Committee exists to negotiate with the now-exiled central government of Myanmar (1).
Works Cited
(1) - Lintner, B. (2019). The United Wa State Army and Burma’s Peace Process. United States Institute of Peace. https://www.usip.org/publications/2019/04/united-wa-state-army-and-burmas-peace-process.
(2) - Winn, P. (2024). Narcotopia: In Search of the Asian Drug Cartel That Survived the CIA. PublicAffairs.
(3) - Lintner, B. (2019, September 18). Why Myanmar’s Wa always get what they want. Asia Times. https://asiatimes.com/2019/09/why-myanmars-wa-always-get-what-they-want/.
(4) - Zaw, A. (2020, March 9). Shadowy Drug Lord Wei Hsueh-kang’s Influence Still Felt in Myanmar’s Wa Region and Beyond. The Irrawaddy. https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/commentary/shadowy-drug-lord-wei-hsueh-kangs-influence-still-felt-myanmars-wa-region-beyond.html.
(5) - Davis, A. (2022, February 22). Wa an early winner of Myanmar’s post-coup war. Asia Times. https://asiatimes.com/2022/02/wa-an-early-2er-of-myanmars-post-coup-war/.
(6) - The Euro-Burma Office (2009). The Kokang Clashes – What Next?
(7) - The Irrawaddy (2024, November 26). Tensions High on Myanmar Border as Thai Troops Demand UWSA Withdrawal. https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/tensions-high-on-myanmar-border-as-thai-troops-demand-uwsa-withdrawal.html.
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